Marine Mammals Essay

SeaWorld gives you the opportunity to feed and swim with dolphins, watch jaw-dropping whale and seal shows, pet stingrays, see all types of sharks, exotic fish, and so much more! But my views have recently changed after I saw the tragic death of a Sea World trainer on the news; the cause of death being one of the parks very own orca whales. This horrific news brought me to research why the whale turned on its trainer and the information I found made me change my outlook on animal captivity completely. In the ethical debate over marine mammals in captivity there are many conflicting views. The public theme park industries advocate that marine mammal exhibits provide an important role in educating, entertaining, and conservation; they see nothing wrong with captivity. An increasing number of scientists counter this view and believe that animals should flourish naturally and are too intelligent to be held captive. Animal protection groups also have taken notice that these mammals in cap tivity develop severe health issues and should be in the wild. There are other organizations that believe in absolute welfare of these animals, whether it is best  suited in confinement or in the wild. Lastly there are associations that agree with captivity for some cases, just not when animals are exploited. Above all I agree that the more knowledge we have about marine mammals, the more mankind can do to help find the most beneficial option for specific marine animals. When thinking about aquatic parks one in particular comes to mind for most people, Sea World. According to its website, â€Å"SeaWorld has a world-wide reputation for providing unique, up-close animal encounters designed to bring more than 20 million guests each year closer to wildlife and the world we share† (â€Å"Sea World†). Parks like this also affirm that one of their main goals is to educate people through seeing live animals in person such as dolphins, whales, seals, and penguins. Marine parks around the world, including Sea World, also claim that they serve as a rescue and a preservation center for stranded, sick, orphaned or injured animals. This is in fact true; many animal lives have been saved due to the help of aquatic parks (SeaworldParks.com). But some still question if it’s justifiable to keep animals in captivity if they are capable to live naturally in the wild after being rehabilitated. It’s evident that SeaWorld and other captivity par ks have not only contributed tremendously with saving countless marine  mammals lives, but have also entertained and educated thousands of people on marine life. Yet with all of this in mind it’s hard for me to fully agree that captivity is always the best option for these animals’ welfare. It’s tough to deny that the entertainment and profit aspect from the â€Å"yearly 20 million guests† may be intervening with the wellbeing of the animals, which should always be the main focus. On the other side of the spectrum when dealing with the issue of marine mammals in captivity, are animal rights activists. â€Å"There are better and more humane ways of providing entertainment and education to the public without sacrificing the welfare of animals† states Grace Ge Gabriel, the head force behind the Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW). The IFAW is a well-known organization that advocates saving animal populations from cruelty and depletion. An example of their support is their campaign to end commercial whaling and seal hunts. She and many others speak out against marine mammals held in captivity (Gabriel). These activists express that the lives of captive marine mammals are impoverished, people do not receive an accurate picture of a species from imprisoned environments, and the traffic in live marine mammals causes harmful impacts on populations and the animals’ health. A prime example is the abuse whales endure when their family and pod members are separat ed from each other to be put into captivity. Once removed from their natural environment, the whales are then transported to small enclosures that lack not only their families and social groups but which also are only a fraction of the size of their natural home range (â€Å"PETA†). If life for captive orcas and dolphins were as peaceful as marine parks would have us believe, the animals would live longer than their wild counterparts. While captive marine mammals are not subject to predators or ocean pollution, their captivity is nevertheless a death sentence. These caged mammals develop severe health issues from being confined to small tanks where they are forced to perform unnecessary tricks for â€Å"entertainment.† According to PETA’s website, â€Å"Wild orcas can also live for decades—some have been documented to be more than 90 years old—but those at Sea World and other marine parks rarely survive for more than 10 years† (peta.org). An imals imprisoned die prematurely from stress and other captivity-related causes; which is seen as the  main cause for the deaths of animal trainers at aquatic parks, like the attack mentioned before from Sea World. The question of whether marine mammals should be held captive is even weighed in by scientists. There have been countless experiments and portrayals of cetaceans, or aquatic mammals such as whales and dolphins, displaying intelligent behavior. Experts in philosophy, conservation, and animal behavior recognize that dolphins and whales are adequately intelligent to justify the same ethical considerations as humans. According to the BBC News World website, â€Å"The move was made at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in Vancouver, Canada, the world’s biggest science conference. It is based on years of research that has shown dolphins and whales have large, complex brains and a human-like level of self-awareness† (http://www.bbc.co.uk). This has led the experts to conclude that by recognizing these animals’ rights would serve as a catalyst to ending whaling and captivity of these self-aware creatures. Unlike the views of animal display industries who endorse captivity, or animal rights activists and scientists whom advocate against it, there are some associations that seem more neutral towards animal confinement. These organizations act as a middle ground, where their pure intent is to promote animal wellbeing; whether that may be in captivity or in their natural environment. These groups look at specific cases of different marine mammal species individually and decide where that animal is more likely to thrive. The Seal Conservation Society (SCS) is a terrific illustration of a society who is neutral to the thought of captivity; their main focus being on conservation and welfare. They view both sides of captivity on their website. At first questioning captivity they inquire, â€Å"Do the benefits to humans from the animalndisplay industry justify the animals’ confinement and stress associated with the unnatural environment? The question remains for all marine mammals whet her captivity is justified for entertainment, educational or conservation purposes.† Then countering those thoughts according to the website, â€Å"A further justification for captive pinnipeds to be considered is the research value of captive studies where the research clearly increases  our understanding and appreciation of pinniped species, this benefit must be considered in the context of the welfare and well-being of the animals involved. Our society would tend to support those facilities where the animals’ long-term and welfare is a priority† (pinnipeds.org). These impartial organizations appear exceptionally more helpful than the other radical view points; instead of supporting what they believe in they can focus more on the specific animal and not their cause. In correspondence to the previous organizations mentioned, there are similar associations that promote animal well-being but also support captivity if it’s necessary. These groups are marin e mammal rescue centers that endorse captivity along with non-performance opportunities. The Marine Mammal Center is an organization that believes animals shouldn’t be abused in captivity by being forced to perform unnatural tricks, but believe captivity should be allowed if the animal cannot survive on its own in the wild (â€Å"Marine Mammal Center†). These institutions don’t see captivity as the enemy, but rather view aquatic theme parks and entertainment business that confine animals for the wrong reasons to be immoral. Their website won me over when it stated, â€Å"What we do is more than kind-hearted consideration for the well-being of other living creatures. We recognize the fundamental relationship that binds humans, animals, and the ocean† (â€Å"Marine Mammal Center†). The question if marine mammals should be kept in captivity is tough to answer. Personally, I believe that in our present society there are more urgent matters than amusing audiences by exploiting such intelligent and defenseless animals. We have an ethical and imperative responsibility to think about species that may be negatively impacted by our actions. This includes a lot of species, and cetaceans are no exception. These marine mammals should remain where they evolved and thrived and we should make sure that their rights are protected so that they can go on living there.

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B. Sc. (H) Computer Science 3-YEAR FULL TIME PROGRAMME RULES, REGULATIONS AND COURSES CONTENTS DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE FACULTY OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF DELHI DELHI – 110007 2010 Semester Systems at the undergraduate level Course of Study: B. Sc. (H) Computer Semester – I CSHT-101 Programming Fundamentals CSHT-102 Discrete Structures Digital Electronics Calculus and Matrices CSHT-203 Data Structures Semester – II CSHT-204 computer Systems Architecture English Calculus and Geometry using C++ Semeser – III CSHT-305 Algorithms CSHT-306 Systems Programmin g CSHT-307 File Structures and Database Basic Probability and Statistics Semester – IV CSHT-408 Operating Systems CSHT-409 Data Communica tion and Computer CSHT-410 Software Engineering Real Analysis / Differential Equations Semester – V CSHT-511 Theory of Computations CSHT-512 Microproces sors CSHT-513 Internet Technologie s Optimization I/ Real Analysis/To be decided by the student Semeser – VI CSHT-614 Computer Graphics CSHT-615 Information Security CSHT-616 Electives Statistical Methodology/ DE/To be decided by the student Electives: 1. Software Testing 2. Artificial Intelligence 3. Network Programming and Administration 4. Data Mining 5. Combinatorial Optimizations Proposed Structure and Syllabi for B. Sc. (H) Computer Science – July 2010 Semester I Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-101 Programming Fundamentals using C++ Discrete Structures Digital Electronics Calculus and Matrices Software Lab based on 101 Lab based on Digital Electronics 5 – 0-0 5 – CSHT-102 ** ** CSHP-101 5 – 0-0 5 100 – 0-0-8 4 100 Semester II Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-203 CSHT-204 ** ** CSHP-202 CSHP-203 Data Structures Computer Systems Architecture EL – II (Language) Calculus and Geometry Software Lab based on 203 Lab based on 204 5 – 0-0 5 –0-0 5 5 101 0-0-8 0-0-4 4 2 100 50 Semester III Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-305 CSHT-306 Algorithms Systems Programming 5-0-0 5 – 0 -0 5 5 101,203 101, 203 CSHT-307 ** CSHP-304 CSHP-305 CSHP- 306 Database Systems Basic Statistics and Probability Software Lab based on 305 Software Lab based on 306 Software Lab based on 307 5–0-0 5 100 101, 203 0-0-4 0-0-4 0-0-4 2 2 2 50 50 50 Semester IV Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-408 CSHT-409 Operating Systems Data Communication and Computer Networks Software Engineering Real Analysis/ Differential Equations Software Lab based on 408 Software Lab based on 409 Software Lab based on 410 5 – 0-0 5 – 0-0 5 5 101, 203 CSHT-410 ** 5 – 0-0 5 100 101, 203 – CSHP-407 CSHP-408 CSHP-409 0-0-4 0-0-4 0-0-4 2 2 2 50 50 50 Semester V Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 100 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-511 CSHT-512 CSHT-513 ** CSHP-510 Theory of Computations Microprocessors Internet Technologies Optimization I/Real Analysis/* Software Lab based on 512 5 – 0– 0 5–0-0 5–0-0 5 5 5 01 204 409 0-0-4 2 50 CSHP-511 Lab based on 513 0-0-4 2 50 Semester VI Coding Title L–T–P Credits Total Marks 100 100 100 Pre-requisites CSHT-614 CSHT-615 CSHT-616 ** Computer Graphics Information Security Elective Differential Equations/ Statistical Methodology/* Software Lab based on 614 Softwar e Lab based on 615 Software Lab based on 616 5-0-0 5-0-0 5-0-0 5 5 5 – CSHP-612 CSHP-613 CSHP-614 0-0-4 0-0-4 0-0-4 2 2 2 50 50 50 †¢ To be decided by the student from any discipline * * Will be finalized after the syllabi by the respective departments (Electronics / Mathematics / Statistics / English) are made. CSHT-101 Programming Fundamentals (60 Lectures) Basic Computer Organization: Functional Units, basic I/O devices and storage devices; Representation of integers, real (fixed and floating point), characters (ASCII and Unicode); Basic operations of a programming environment. Problem Solving Approaches: Notion of an algorithm, problem solving using top-down design and decomposition into sub-problems, stepwise methodology of developing an algorithm, methodology of developing an algorithmic solution from a mathematical specification of the problem, use of recursion for problems with inductive characterization. Programming using C++: basic data types; constants and variables, arithmetic and logical expressions, assignment; input-output interface; control structures in conditionals, loops; procedural abstractions; strings and arrays; command line arguments; file handling; error handling. Introduction to the object-oriented programming paradigms; data abstraction and encapsulation — objects and classes; inheritance; polymorphism; Recommended Books: 1. B. A. Forouzan and R. F. Gilberg, Computer Science, A structured Approach using C++, Cengage Learning, 2004. 2. R. G. Dromey, How to solve it by Computer, Pearson Education 1982 3. E. Balaguruswamy, Object Oriented Programming with C++ , 4th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill 1997 4. G. J. Bronson, A First Book of C++ From Here to There, 3rd Edition, Cengage Learning 2005. 5. G. Seed, An Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming in C++, with applications in Computer Graphics Springer 2nd Edition 2001. CSHT 102 Discrete Structures (60 Lectures) Introduction: Sets – finite and Infinite sets, uncountably Infinite Sets; functions, relations, Properties of Binary Relations, Closure, Partial Ordering Relations; counting – Pigeonhole Principle, Permutation and Combination; Mathematical Induction, Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion. Growth of Functions: Asymptotic Notations, Summation formulas and properties, Bounding Summations, approximation by Integrals Recurrences: Recurrence Relations, generating functions, Linear Recurrence Relations with constant coefficients and their solution, Substitution Method, Recurrence Trees, Master Theorem Graph Theory: Basic Terminology, Models and Types, multigraphs and weighted graphs, Graph Representaion, Graph Isomorphism, Connectivity, Euler and Hamiltonian Paths and Circuits, Planar Graphs, Graph Coloring, Trees, Basic Terminology and properties of Trees, Introduction to Spanning Trees Prepositional Logic: Logical Connectives, Well-formed Formulas, Tautologies, Equivalences, Inference Theory Recommended Books: 1. C. L. Liu & Mahopatra, Elements of Discrete mathematics, 2nd Sub Edition 1985, Tata McGraw Hill 2. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, Sixth Edition 2006 3. T. H. Coremen, C. E. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, Introduction to algorithms, Prentice Hall on In dia (3rd edition 2009) 4. M. O. Albertson and J. P. Hutchinson, Discrete Mathematics with Algorithms 1988 Johnwiley Publication 5. J. L. Hein, Discrete Structures, Logic, and Computability, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 3rd Edition, 2009 6. D. J. Hunter, Essentials of Discrete Mathematics, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2008 Digital Electronics In consultation with Department of Electronics) Number System and Codes: Decimal, Binary, Hexadecimal, Octal, BCD, Conversions, Complements (1’s and 2’s), Signed and Unsigned numbers, Addition and Substraction, Multiplication Gray and Hamming Codes Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra: Truth Tables, OR, AND, NOT, EXOR, Universal (NOR and NAND) Gates, Boolean Theorems, DeMorgan’s Theorems. Combinational Logic Analysis and Design: Standard representation of logic functions (SOP and POS), Minimization Techniques(Karnaugh Map Method: 4,5 variables). Multiplexers(2:1,4:1)) and Demultiplexers (1:2,4:1), Adder (half and full) and th eir use as substractor, Encoder (8-line-to-3-line) and Decoder (3-line-to-8-line) , Code Converters( Binary to BCD and vice versa). Sequential logic design: Latch, Flip flop, S-R FF , J-K FF, T and D type FFs, Clocked FFs, Registers, Counters (ripple, synchronous and asynchronous, ring, modulus), State Table, State Diagrams and Sequential Machines. A/D and D/A Converters: Successive Approximation ADC, R/2R Ladder DAC. Memories: General Memory Operation, ROM, RAM (Static and Dynamic), PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, EAROM. Suggested Books: 1. Digital Electronics, Principles and Applications, R. L. Tokheim, Tata McGraw-Hill. 2. Digital Principles, R. L. Tokheim, Schaum’s Outline Series, Tata McGraw-Hill. 3. Digital Systems, Principles and Applications, R. J. Tocci and N. S. Widner, Pearson Education Asia. 4. Digital Principles and Applications, A. P. Malvino and D. Leach, Tata McGraw Hill. 5. Digital Design, M. M. Mano, Pearson Education Asia. 6. Digital Fundamentals, T. L. Floyd, Pearson Education Asia. 7. Solved Problems in Digital Electronics, S. P. Bali, Sigma Series, Tata McGraw-Hill. 8. Digital Electronics, W. H. Gothmann, Prentice Hall of India. 9. Modern Digital Electronics, R. P. Jain, Tata McGraw-Hill. CSHT 203 Data Structures (60 Lectures) Introduction: Abstract Data Types, Arrays- Single and Multidimensional arrays, Sparse matrices. Linear structures: Stacks, Queues (linear as well as circular implementation), singly-, doubly-, and circularly- linked lists — Operations and applications. Recursion: Problem solving using recursion, run time stack in recursion, tail recursion, and its removal. Searching techniques: Linear search, Binary search and their efficiency, Skip Lists, Hashing. Tree Structures: Trees, Binary Trees, Complete Binary trees and almost complete Binary trees, binary search trees, Insertion, Deletion, Tree traversal algorithms, Threaded trees (recursive as well as Non recursive), applications of trees. Multiway trees – B-Trees and introduction to B+ Trees. Recommended Books: 1. A. Drozdek, Data Structures and algorithm in C++, 3rd Edition, Course Technology 2004. 2. Data Structures using C and C++, Tannenbaum, 2nd edition ** 1995 3. Data Structures and Algorithms in C++. Publication John Wiley 2003 4. S. Sahni, Data Structures, Algorithms and applications in C++, Publication Silicon Press 2004 5. B. R. Preiss, Data structures and algorithms with object oriented design patterns in C++, John Wiley and sons, 1998. CSHT 204 Computer System Architecture (60 Lectures) Basic Computer Organization and Design: Computer registers, bus system, instruction set, timing and control, instruction cycle, memory reference, input-output and interrupt, Interconnection Structures, Bus Interconnection design of basic computer. Central Processing Unit: Register organization, arithmetic and logical micro-operations, stack organization, micro programmed control. Instruction formats, addressing modes, instruction codes, machine language, assembly language, input output programming, RISC, CISC architectures, pipelining and parallel architecture. Memory Organization: Cache memory, Associative memory, mapping. Input-output Organization: Input / Output: External Devices, I/O Modules, Programmed I/O, Interrupt-Driven I/O, Direct Memory Access, I/O Channels Recommended Books: 1. M. Mano, Computer System Architecture, Prentice Hall of India Third edition / Pearson Education 1992. 2. A. J. Dos Reis, Assembly language and computer architecture using C++ and JAVA, Course Technology, 2004. 3. W. Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture Desiguing for Performance 8th Edition 2009, Prentice Hall of India. CSHT 305 Algorithms (60 Lectures) Introduction: Basic Design and Analysis techniques of Algorithms, Correctness of Algorithm. Algorithm Design Techniques: Iterative techniques, Divide and Conquer, Dynamic Programming, Greedy Algorithms. Sorting and Searching Techniques: Elementary sorting techniques – Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, Merge Sort, Advanced Sorting techniques – Heap Sort, Quick Sort, Sorting in Linear Time Bucket Sort, Radix Sort and Count Sort, Searching Techniques, Medians & Order Statistics, complexity analysis; Lower Bounding Techniques: Decision Trees Balanced Trees – Red-Black Trees Advanced Analysis Technique: Amortized analysis Graphs: Graph Algorithms – Breadth First Search, Depth First Search and its Applications, Minimum Spanning Trees. String Processing: String Matching, KMP Technique Recommended Books: 1. T. H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, Clifford Stein Introduction to Algorithms, PHI, 3rd Edition 2009 2. Sarabasse & A. V. Gelder Computer Algorithm – Introduction to Design and Analysis, Publisher – Pearson 3rd Edition 1999 CSHT 306 Systems Programming (60 Lectures) Introduction: Introduction to Systems Software and machine architecture. Assemblers: Example of an assembly language, programming in assembly language, assembler features and functions, Load and Go assembler, One-pass and two pass assemblers, Macros and macro processors. Compilers: Compiler functions and features, phases of compilation, optimization. Loaders and Linkers: Basic Loader functions and features, Relocation, Program Linking, static and dynamic linking. Recommended Books: 1. A. J. Dos Reis, Assembly language and computer architecture using C++ and JAVA, Course Technology, 2004 2. D. M. Dhamdhere Systems Programming and Operating Systems, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Ltd; Second Revised Edition 1996 3. L. Beck, D. Manjula, System Software, An Introduction to Systems Programming, Pearson, 3rd Edition 1996. 4. S. Chattopadhyay, Systems Software, PHI 2007. CSHT 307 Database Systems (60 Lectures) Introduction: Characteristics of database approach, data models, database system architecture and data independence. Entity Relationship(ER) Modeling: Entity types, relationships, constraints. Relation data model: Relational model concepts, relational constraints, relational algebra, SQL queries, programming using embedded SQL. Database design: mapping ER model to relational database, functional dependencies, normal forms. Transaction Processing: ACID properties, concurrency control, recovery. Web based databases: XML documents and databases. Books Recommended: 1. R. Elmasri, S. B. Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems 6th Edition, Pearson Education 2010. 2. R. Ramakrishanan, J. Gehrke, Database Management Systems 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill 2002. 3. A. Silberschatz, H. F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, Database System Concepts 6th Edition, McGraw Hill 2010. CSHT 408 Operating Systems (60 Lectures) Introduction: Basic OS functions, resource abstraction, types of operating systems – multiprogramming systems, batch systems , time sharing systems; operating systems for personal computers & workstations, process control & real time systems. Operating System Organization: processor and user modes, kernels, system calls and system programs. Process Management: System view of the process and resources, process abstraction, process hierarchy, threads, threading issues, thread libraries; Process Scheduling, non-pre-emptive and pre-emptive scheduling algorithms; concurrent and processes, critical section, semaphores, methods for inter-process communication; deadlocks. Memory Management: Physical and virtual address space; memory allocation strategies -fixed and variable partitions, paging, segmentation, virtual memory File and I/O Management: Directory structure, file operations, file allocation methods, device management. Protection and Security: Policy mechanism, authentication, internal access authorization. Recommended Books: 1. A Silberschatz, P. B. Galvin, G. Gagne, Operating Systems Concepts, 8th Edition, John Wiley Publications 2008. 2. A. S. Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education 2007. 3. G. Nutt, Operating Systems: A Modern Perspective, 2nd Edition Pearson Education 1997. 4. W. Stallings, Operating Systems, Internals & Design Principles 2008 5th Edition, Prentice Hall of India. 5. M. Milenkovic, Operating Systems- Concepts and design, Tata McGraw Hill 1992. CSHT 409 Data Communication and Computer Networks (60 Lectures) Introduction to Computer Networks: Network definition; network topologies; network classifications; network protocol; layered network architecture; overview of OSI reference model; overview of TCP/IP protocol suite. Data Communication Fundamentals and Techniques: Analog and digital signal; data-rate limits; digital to digital line encoding schemes; pulse code modulation; parallel and serial transmission; digital to analog modulation-; multiplexing techniques- FDM, TDM; transmission media. Networks Switching Techniques and Access mechanisms: Circuit switching; packet switching- connectionless datagram switching, connection-oriented virtual circuit switching; dial-up modems; digital subscriber line; cable TV for data transfer. Data Link Layer Functions and Protocol: Error detection and error correction techniques; data-link control- framing and flow control; error recovery protocols- stop and wait ARQ, goback-n ARQ; Point to Point Protocol on Internet. Multiple Access Protocol and Networks: CSMA/CD protocols; Ethernet LANS; connecting LAN and back-bone networks- repeaters, hubs, switches, bridges, router and gateways; Networks Layer Functions and Protocols: routing; routing algorithms; network layer protocol of Internet- IP protocol, Internet control protocols. Transport Layer Functions and Protocols: Transport services- error and flow control, Connection establishment and release- three way handshake; Overview of Application layer protocol: Overview of DNS protocol; overview of WWW & HTTP protocol. Recommended Books: 1. B. A. Forouzan: Data Communications and Networking, Fourth edition, THM Publishing Company Ltd 2007. 2. A. S. Tanenbaum: Computer Networks, Fourth edition, PHI Pvt. Ltd 2002. CSHT 410 Software Engineering (60 Lectures) Introduction: The Evolving Role of Software, Software Characteristics, Changing Nature of Software, Software Engineering as a Layered Technology, Software Process Framework, Framework and Umbrella Activities, Process Models, Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI). Requirement Analysis: Software Requirement Analysis, Initiating Requirement Engineering Process, Requirement Analysis and Modeling Techniques, Flow Oriented Modeling, Need for SRS, Characteristics and Components of SRS. Software Project Management: Estimation in Project Planning Process, Project Scheduling. Risk Management: Software Risks, Risk Identification, Risk Projection and Risk Refinement, RMMM Plan. Quality Management: Quality Concepts, Software Quality Assurance, Software Reviews, Metrics for Process and Projects. Design Engineering: Design Concepts, Architectural Design Elements, Software Architecture, Data Design at the Architectural Level and Component Level, Mapping of Data Flow into Software Architecture, Modeling Component Level Design. Testing Strategies & Tactics: Software Testing Fundamentals, Strategic Approach to Software Testing, Test Strategies for Conventional Software, Validation Testing, System Testing, BlackBox Testing, White-Box Testing and their type, Basis Path Testing. Recommended Books: 1. R. S. Pressman, Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach (7th Edition), McGrawHill, 2009. 2. P. Jalote, An Integrated Approach to Software Engineering (2nd Edition), Narosa Publishing House, 2003. 3. K. K. Aggarwal and Y. Singh, Software Engineering (revised 2nd Edition), New Age International Publishers, 2008. 4. I. Sommerville, Software Engineering (8th edition), Addison Wesle, 2006. 5. D. Bell, Software Engineering for Students (4th Edition), Addison-Wesley, 2005. 6. R. Mall, Fundamentals of Software Engineering (2nd Edition), Prentice-Hall of India, 2004. CSHT 511 Theory of Computation (60 Lectures) Languages: Alphabets, string, language, Basic Operations on language, Concatenation, Kleene Star Finite Automata and Regular Languages: Regular Expressions, Transition Graphs, Deterministics and non-deterministic finite automata, NFA to DFA Conversion, Regular languages and their relationship with finite automata, Pumping lemma and closure properties of regular languages. Context free languages: Context free grammars, parse trees, ambiguities in grammars and languages, Pushdown automata (Deterministic and Non-deterministic), Pumping Lemma, Properties of context free languages, normal forms. Turing Macines and Models of Computations: RAM, Turing Machine as a model of computation, Universal Turing Machine, Language acceptability, decidability, halting problem, Recursively enumerable and recursive languages, unsolvability problems. Recommended Books: 1. Daniel I. A. Cohen, Introduction to computer theory – John Wiley (1996 2nd Edition). 2. Lewis & Papadimitriou, Elements of the theory of computation – II Edition PHI 1997. 3. Hoperoft, Aho, Ullman, Introduction to Automata theory, Language & Computation –3rd Edition 2006, Pearson Education. 4. P. Linz, An Introduction to Formal Language and Automata 4th edition Publication Jones Bartlett 2006 CSHT 512 Microprocessors (60 Lectures) Microprocessor architecture: Internal architecture, system bus architecture, memory and I/O interfaces. Microprocessor programming: Register Organization, instruction formats, assembly language programming. Interfacing: Memory address decoding, cache memory and cache controllers, I/O interface, keyboard, display, timer, interrupt controller, DMA controller, video controllers, communication interfaces. Recommended Books: 1. Barry B. Brey : The Intel Microprocessors : Architecture, Programming and Interfacing. Pearson Education, Sixth Edition. 2. Walter A Triebel, Avtar Singh; The 8088 and 8086 Microprocessors Programming, Interfacing, Software, Hardware, and Applications. PHI, Fourth Edition 2005. CSHT 513 Internet Technologies (60 Lectures) JavaScript: Data types, operators, functions, control structures, events and event handling. Java: Use of Objects, Array and ArrayList class , Designing classes, Inheritance, Input/Output, Exception Handling. JDBC: JDBC Fundamentals, Establishing Connectivity and working with connection interface, Working with statements, Creating and Executing SQL Statements, Working with Result Set Objects. JSP: Introduction to JavaServer Pages, HTTP and Servlet Basics, The Problem with Servlets, The Anatomy of a JSP Page, JSP Processing, JSP Application Design with MVC, Setting Up the JSP Environment, Implicit JSP Objects, Conditional Processing, Displaying Values, Using an expression to Set an Attribute, Declaring Variables and Methods, Error Handling and Debugging, Sharing Data Between JSP Pages, Requests, and Users, Database Access. Java Beans: Java Beans Fundamentals, JAR files, Introspection, Developing a simple Bean, Connecting to DB Recommended Books: 1. Web Enabled Commercial Application Development Using Html, Dhtml,javascript, Perl Cgi By Ivan Bayross, BPB Publications, 2009. 2. BIG Java Cay Horstmann, Wiley Publication , 3rd Edition. , 2009 3. Java 7 ,The Complete Reference, Herbert Schildt, 8th Edition, 2009. 4. The Complete Reference J2EE, TMH, Jim Keogh, 2002. 5. Java Server Pages, Hans Bergsten, Third Edition, O'Reilly Media December 2003. CSHT 614 Computer Graphics (60 Lectures) Introduction to Graphics systems, Basic elements of Computer graphics, Applications of computer graphics. Graphics Hardware: Architecture of Raster and Random scan display devices, input/output devices. Fundamental Techniques in Graphics: Raster scan line, circle and ellipse drawing, thick primitives, Polygon filling, line and polygon clipping algorithms, 2D and 3D Geometric Transformations, 2D and 3D Viewing Transformations (Projections- Parallel and Perspective), Vanishing points. Geometric Modeling: Representing curves & Surfaces. Visible Surface determination: Hidden surface elimination. Surface rendering: Illumination and shading models. Basic color models and Computer Animation. Books Recommended: 1. J. D. Foley, A. Van Dan, Feiner, Hughes Computer Graphics Principles & Practice 2nd edition Publication Addison Wesley 1990. 2. D. Hearn, Baker: Computer Graphics, Prentice Hall of India 2008. 3. D. F. Rogers Procedural Elements for Computer Graphics, McGraw Hill 1997. 4. D. F. Rogers, Adams Mathematical Elements for Computer Graphics, McGraw Hill 2nd edition 1989. CSHT 615 Information Security (60 Lectures) Introduction: Security, Attacks, Computer Criminals, Security Services, Security Mechanisms. Cryptography: Substitution ciphers, Transpositions Cipher, Confusion, diffusion, Symmetric, Asymmetric Encryption. DES Modes of DES. ,Uses of Encryption. ,Hash function,key exchange, digital signatures,Digital Certificates. Program Security: Secure programs,Non malicious Program errors, Malicious codes virus,trap doors,salami attacks, covert channels,Control against program Threats. Protection in OS: Memory and Address Protection, Access control, File Protection, User Authentication. Database Security: Requirements, Reliability, Integrity, Sensitive data, Inference, Multilevel Security. Security in Networks: Threats in Networks s Networks security Controls, detection systems, Secure e-mails firewalls, Intusion Administrating Security: Security Planning, Risk Analysis, Organisational Security Policy, Physical Security. Ethical issues in Security: Protecting Programs and data. Information and law. Recommended Books: 1. C. P. Pfleeger, S. L. Pfleeger; Security in Computing, Prentice Hall of India, 2006 2. W. Stallings ; Network Security Essentials: Applications and Standards, 4/E, 2010 CSHT 616 (i) Foundations of Software Testing Fundamentals of testing: Need for testing, process, The psychology of testing General testing principles, Fundamental test Testing throughout the software life cycle: Software development models, Test levels (Unit, Integration, System Acceptance testing), Test types (functional, non-functional, regression testing), Maintenance testing Static techniques: Static techniques and the test process, Review process (types of review, roles and responsibilities), Test design techniques: The Test Development Process, Categories of test design techniques, Specification-based or black-box techniques (Equivalence partitioning, Boundary value analysis, Decision table testing, State transition testing, Use case testing), Structure-based or white-box techniques (Statement testing and coverage, Decision testing and coverage, other structure-based techniques), Experience-based techniques, Choosing test techniques Test management: Test organization (test leader, tester), Test planning and estimation ( Test planning, Test planning activities, Exit criteria, Test estimation, Test approaches), Test progress monitoring and control (Test progress monitoring, test reporting, test control), Configuration management, Risk and testing (Project risks, Product risks), Incident management Web Application Testing Foundation: Basic test planning and testing methods for web applications, Introduction to gray-box testing and its application to testing web applications, Outline knowledge, methods and tools for testing web applications, Introduction to web testing tools and sources, Introduction to research tools on the Net. Tool support for testing: Types of test tool, Test tool classification, Tool support for management of testing and tests, static testing, test specification, test execution and logging, performance and monitoring, specific application areas, using other tools, Effective use of tools: potential benefits and risks Recommended Books: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Boris Beizer, â€Å"Software Testing Techniques†, Van Nostrand Reinhold Louise Tamres, â€Å"Software Testing†, Pearson Education Paul Jogerson, â€Å"Software Testing† CRC Press Roger R Pressman, â€Å"Software Engineering – A Practitioner’s approach† Mc Graw Hill Testing Applications on the Web, 2nd Edition by Nguyen, Michael Hackett, and Bob Johnson (Wiley, 2003 CSHT 616 (ii) ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Introduction: (60 Lectures) Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Background and Applications, Turing Test and Rational Agent approaches to AI, Introduction to Intelligent Agents, their structure, be havior and environment. Problem Solving and Searching Techniques: Problem Characteristics, Production Systems, Control Strategies, Breadth First Search, Depth First Search, Hill climbing and its Variations, Heuristics Search Techniques: Best First Search, A* algorithm, Constraint Satisfaction Problem, Means-End Analysis, Introduction to Game Playing, Min-Max and Alpha-Beta pruning algorithms. Knowledge Representation: Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic, Resolution Principle, Unification, Semantic Nets, Conceptual Dependencies, Frames, and Scripts, Production Rules, Conceptual Graphs. Programming in Logic (PROLOG). Dealing with Uncertainty and Inconsistencies: Truth Maintenance System, Default Reasoning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Bayesian Probabilistic Inference, Possible World Representations. Understanding Natural Languages: Parsing Techniques, Context-Free and Transformational Grammars, Recursive and Augmented Transition Nets. BOOKS RECOMMENDED: 1. 2. DAN. W. Patterson, Introduction to A. I and Expert Systems – PHI, 2007. Russell & Norvig, Artificial Intelligence-A Modern Approach, LPE, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2nd edition, 2005. Rich & Knight, Artificial Intelligence – Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd edition, 1991. W. F. Clocksin and Mellish, Programming in PROLOG, Narosa Publishing House, 3rd edition, 2001. 5. Ivan Bratko, Prolog Programming for Artificial Intelligence, Addison-Wesley, Pearson Education, 3rd edition, 2000. 3. 4. CSHT 616 (iii) Network Programming and Administration Transport Layer Protocols: TCP, UDP, SCTP protocol. Socket Programming: Socket Introduction; TCP Sockets; TCP Client/Server Example ; signal handling; I/O multiplexing using sockets; Socket Options; UDP Sockets; UDP client server example; Address lookup using sockets. Network Applications: Remote logging; Email; WWWW and HTTP. LAN administration: Linux and TCP/IP networking: Network Management and Debugging. Books recommended: 1. W. Richard Stevens, Bill Fenner, Andrew M. Rudoff, Unix Network Programming, The sockets Networking API, Vol. 1, 3rd Edition, PHI. 2. B. A. Forouzan: Data Communications and Networking, Fourth edition, THM Publishing Company Ltd. 3. Nemeth Synder & Hein, Linux Administration Handbook, Pearson Education, 2nd Edition 4. R. Stevens, Unix Network Programming, PHI 2nd Edition CSHT 616 (iv) Data Mining Overview: Predictive and descriptive data mining techniques, supervised and unsupervised learning techniques, process of knowledge discovery in databases, pre-processing methods Data Mining Techniques: Association Rule Mining, classification and regression techniques, clustering, Scalability and data management issues in data mining algorithms, measures of interestingness Books Recommended: 1. Introduction to Data Mining, Pang-Ning Tan, Michael Steinbach, Vipin Kumar, Pearson Education. 2. Data Mining: A Tutorial Based Primer, Richard Roiger, Michael Geatz, Information; Pearson Education 2003. 3. Introduction to Data Mining with Case Studies, G. K. Gupta, PHI,2006. 4. Insight Into Data Mining: Theory And Practice, Soman K P,Diwakar Shyam, Ajay V, PHI, 2006 CSHT 616 (v) Combinatorial Optimization Introduction: Optimization problems, neighborhoods, local and global optima, convex sets and functions, simplex method, degeneracy; duality and dual algorithm, computational considerations for the simplex and dual simplex algorithms-Dantzig-Wolfe algorithms. Integer Linear Programming: Cutting plane algorithms, branch and bound technique. Graph Algorithms: Primal-Dual algorithm and its application to shortest path, Math-flow problems Dijkstra’s algorithm, Max-flow problem, matching problem, bipartite matching algorithm, non-bipartite matching algorithms. Books recommended: 1. C. H. Papadimitriou and K. Steiglitz, Combinatorial Optimization: Algorithms and complexity, Prentice-Hall of India, 2006 2. K. Lange, Optimization, Springer, 2004 3. Mokhtar S. Bazaraa, John J. Jarvis and Hanif D. Sherali, Linear Programming and Network Flows, John Wiley & Sons, 2004 4. H. A. Taha, Operations Research: An Introduction (8th Edition), Prentice Hall, 2006 Unknown Life is an experience that comes along with failure. Have you ever had the feeling like you haven't done your best at something or the feeling that you're disappointing the people you care about most? Well Eve had that feeling multiple times especially in middle school. In middle school Eve experience lots of failure; failure with friendships, relationships, and rejection. Failure to me is being unhappy with yourself and not doing what you believe in.My 8th grade year in middle school was a earning experience that came along with lots of failure. The beginning of 8th grade was the easiest part of middle school because there was no drama and less friends. As time went by I gained more friends and more pressure was put on my shoulders. I learned a lot about friendships and the meaning of them. Losing the friends that meant the most to me is one of my failures and something that was challenging. Friendships from the past have a huge impact on the friendships that Eve made today.In middl e school I was always open to meeting new people and starting new reined friendships with anyone but now I realize that I can't do that without getting to know the person first. During my years in high school Eve been more selective with how I choose my friends. Eve learned that in order to trust someone in full and to consider them a good friend, I would have to get to know that person first. Throughout my high school experience Eve gained many friends and learned to trust them. Whenever I had a problem, I would turn to them for advice. Their advice always helped me through my problems and anything else I needed.Throughout my experience in high school and middle school, Eve learned a lot about friendship and values. Eve been making better decisions for myself and how I have been choosing my friends. How I chose my friends will help me in college because Eve had experience with good friends and bad friends. My experience with friends at school is teaching me so much about life. Midd le school and high school has helped me with better decision making when choosing friends. I will use this decision making in college to help me build new friendships.

Pabst Brewing Company action memo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pabst Brewing Company action memo - Essay Example Therefore, I think a well-defined technological appliance would be a recipe for the success of the company. PBC would adopt the cloud based solution which focuses on channel of migration of the PBC datacenter to enterprise web based applications and its identification, extracted and channelize clouding activities for effecting clients web based internet speed and data acquisition. For the years PBC has been in business, it has major been offering competency outsourcing production, which focuses on marketing and promotion of services through internet marketing and distribution of data across world wide websites. This company has been and will be operating on virtualized datacenter because this technique has brought numerous changes to the company as far as digital technology is of concerned. Additionally, the company through the ICT department has been working closely with its customers to ensure that it provides the services on time. Concerning our customers, PBC assesses, prepares, and socialize with its clients via social media such as Facebook in order to enable effectiveness and realization of problems that may affect the business. Further, the company utilizes metrics configurations routine initiating cloud computing applications and operations to remove any forms of complexity dilemma. It provides its subscribers with salient margin minder application which assist in balancing inventory market demands on both sales and data integration. Further, the business offers its clients with free and customized six unique application services. This service includes a total of 28GB migration data space, entailing 4,152 files on system drive and 6,644 files on data drive. Some of the articulations that PBC has initiated in its business that favors, and creates conducive environment to its customers are; i. AppZero slashes the time and complexity of migrating complex, enterprise applications. ii. AppZero leaves the source machine and application untouched. iii. It mak es no change to the source application and requires no AppZero software on the source machine. iv. All AppZero software is on the destination machine in the Rackspace cloud. v. AppZero’s speed maximizes the productivity gains possible during limited maintenance windows vi. AppZero effectively stands in as the application subject matter expert in the absence of documentation or institutional knowledge, discovering and reproducing application inter-dependencies. vii. AppZero results in a clean installation build on the destination machine. viii. Identity Essential’s expertise marshaled technologies and talent to effect the migration. ix. The effort carried a big payload. Overhead is minimized; IT costs are decreased/controlled while its agility and flexibility are increased. PBC is now well positioned to use IT too aggressively and effectively provision fast changing business opportunities. Following its service provision to people, the firm has been accredited as the be st service provider for all gateway services, a service that is credited by the government and limited to the third party companies. I would like to state that Rack Mount Company has the freedom to go independent in order to accomplish their goals. I would also like to bring to your attention that some of the IT policies that the company need to

Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Political Science - Essay Example After the Ancient Greeks there was little attempt to how world politics work. The concepts of realism were greatly expanded by Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes to become very influential amongst people that are attempting to understand and evaluate world politics. The main aspects of the realism school are that nation states are the most important components within the contemporary international system, and that the objective of each nation state is to gain the most from that system by making realistic as well as rational foreign policy decisions. Realism stresses that nation states compete with each other to gain the most amount of power through the most effective diplomatic or military means. The nation states that are the best at using diplomacy and the threat of military force are the ones that should gain the most power and wealth from the international system. Neorealism is a theory of world politics that was developed from realism. Neorealism still contends that the nation state is the main basis for the international system. However, unlike realism the concept of Neorealism contends that nation states are influenced and possibly shaped by the international system, rather than just by the relationships between each other. Neorealism owes most of its concepts and also its arguments to the work of Waltz. It was Waltz and others that developed the notion of Neorealism to make up for the events and the organisations that realism either did not explain at all or only partially explained. Neorealism was designed in order to explain the formation of organisations such as the UN, the EU, and GATT in which nation states co-operate with each other, for their mutual benefits, actions that realism had failed to predict and could not adequately explain. Neorealism claims that non-governmental organisations have an influence over the international sys tem that has weakened the primary position of the nation state without displacing that

Press release Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Press release - Article Example NGO under Penal Reform aims at training prison staff on a number of areas. Areas of interest range from rehabilitation priority to discrimination reduction as well as incorporating respect for humanity when handling prisoners. The prison law enforcing officers will get training on the legislative reforms that seek to improve legal precautionary measure for prisoners. It is also the mandate of the NGO during the process to develop proper and appropriate training curricula for prison law enforcing officers. It will as well provide prison staff with technical assistance to training in conflict resolution. At that time, the prison staff will get an opportunity to understand the need to apply other human right friendly methods of discipline. Training prison staff will provide other possible alternatives to corporal punishment to inmates. Alternatives such as services to the community, working in the government farms among others. Prison staff will also acquire special training on how and when to receive complaints from the prisoner as well as addressing them amicably. The NGO also seeks to promote the standard principle organization that protects all persons under any form of detention. The NGO has also laid down foundation to raise public awareness about prison population and its composition. Based on its plan, the NGO intends to take into account the affairs of vulnerable groups and harmful impacts of imprisonment. The detainees will have a chance to understand their rights and give them the advantage of pre-trial detention or imprisonment. The prison wardens should also learn during the training that the post-conflict areas need a healing and reconciliation mechanisms. Healing and reconciliation process does not encourage brutal means of handling inmates. The NGO further wishes to announce its collaboration with other stakeholders to secure funds

Issues in EU from Swedish perspective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Issues in EU from Swedish perspective - Essay Example Hence Sweden had brought about Skr, 2002-03 providing equal amount of opportunity in order to formulate skills which are not stereotyped in gender terms. (Gender - Sensitive and women friendly public policies -Sweden: Analysis of Policy Context and Policies) During the presidency of the European Union, Sweden claims that top priority is given to gender equality and implemented the EU policy for greater equality between women and men. (Sweden carried EU gender equality work forward) Open Method of Co-ordination -- OMC has also been an important issue which is being promoted by the European Union and its implementation is being significantly emphasized among the member nations. Due to the activities of the European Union, Sweden has brought about various reform processes focused on mobilizing the labor, re-modeling the social benefits as well as the pensions schemes. With regard to the employment arena also, Sweden turned its efforts towards enhancing the work incentives for some of the groups in a number of ways in order to better the social partnerships at the national level and hence minimize the gender gaps in terms of employment and pay scales. In order to promote the European Union policies as well as to satisfy the particular forms of recommendations of the commission, Sweden depended on the national culture and traditions, yet leads to an active work-oriented approach. (European Policy Co-ordination and the OMC) As a measure of the economic unification within Europe, an agreement which is called Treaty on European Union was being entered upon calling for the formation of economic and monetary union -- EMU as well as a common unit of exchange and also for the purpose of setting up the criterion for the level of participation in EMU. Thus, the European Union has created a common currency called as the Euro, firstly in the 12 member nations and further extended to other members also. Sweden delayed joining of the EMU along with the other member countries such as Britain, Denmark, as a result of the concern of the loss of national Sovereignty. Sweden is extremely open towards international trade, exports as well as imports amounting to two-thirds of GDP with half of the trade within the Euro-zone. Thus, Sweden believes that on joining the EMU, Sweden's trade with the Euro-zone would rise to over fifty percent resulting in considerable boost to the Swedish output as well as welfare. (EMU and Swe dish Trade) The basic underlying goal of the European Union with regard to the economic and social cohesion is being stated in the Treaty of Amsterdam. Within this treaty the community states its will in order to formulate and to carry forward the actions in order to strengthen the economic as well as social cohesion as an effort to promote the complete harmonious growth as well as minimize disparities among the various arenas of progress of the various regions. In the year 1995, Sweden had got a resolution being adopted unanimously for

Shifting Power to Make a Difference Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Shifting Power to Make a Difference - Essay Example The problems that faces the institutions that handle international aid - whether they may be on the supply side or intermediaries- is how to best utilize the fund such that the intended improvements for the beneficiary are achieved. This has especially been a growing concern because even with the billions of dollars that have been donated and already consumed, much of the inequalities still remain and the gap seems to be growing. That is, the amount spent is not proportional to the benefits and development acquired whether it may be material or personal. As with all issues and problems, a number of perceived solutions especially from scholars have been forwarded to address the inefficiency of handling and utilizing international aid. Robert Chambers and Jethro Pettit are two such scholars with their composition entitled "Shifting Power to Make a Difference". In this essay, the concept of power to control and to decide as confined to the few is the reason blamed for the inadequacy and inappropriateness of handling international aid. For Chambers and Pettit, the orientation of organizations tends to be non-inclusive meaning the donors usually dictate how the aid is going to be used. This become problematic because the donors may take an inappropriate and even a skewed perspective. Even with the best of intentions, it is simply not the same as asking and considering the voice of the beneficiaries what their problems and perceived solutions are and having them take a participatory role and not just a passive role in a matter that will u ltimately be affecting their lives. The effect to the poor of confining decisions and implementations to the donor and intermediary is what Chambers and Pettit would call an "alien hand". The authors recognize that the problem is in the system and not some external factor. With power already confined to those in the upper echelons, the "norms and procedures combined with personal behavior, attitudes and beliefs, serve to reinforce these existing power relations." (p. 137) Chambers and Pettit identify four action domains that should address the problem with the system and personal behavior. They are the following: Understanding and Analyzing Power Within the mechanism involved in international aid lies the basic issue of who gets to decide and who gets to control. To effect change, we must first be aware of the power relations that exist and determine their impact on aid and development. Only thru awareness and understanding of these power relations can we get an idea of how to best acquire and use it. The authors point out that with knowledge of the implications of the power exercised by donor agencies can they realize the importance of sharing power such as encouraging beneficiaries to make a more proactive stance. The attitude of "I give therefore I decide" could be avoided by acknowledging that those who received are the ones ultimately affected and should therefore be given an opportunity to voice out their opinion. Narrowing the gaps between words and actions For Chamber and Pitt, the lingo used in international aid is problematic. As an example, they cite the use of the word "partnership" which "implies collegial equality and mutual reciprocity" but in reality, only those "who control the funding call the shots". What

Simple Random Sampling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Simple Random Sampling - Essay Example This method would allow collection of data in all the target areas without any bias. Simple random sampling is a statistical tool used in research. In this research method, a subset of a sample is chosen from a population. All individuals are chosen randomly by chance, so that all individuals have the same probability at all the stages of the sampling process. (Patton, 2002). In both large and small populations, such process is done without replacement. An individual avoids choosing a member of a population more than once. Simple random can also be done with replacements but, when done without replacement, it not independent but it still accommodates interchangeability. For an extremely small subset from large population, simple random sampling without replacement gives the same results as wit replacement. Unbiased sampling is incredibly paramount so that the sample selected represents the entire population. This does not show that the sample is a perfect representation of the popula tion, but it provides valid conclusion in relation to the population. This is the simplest sampling technique, and it requires a complete sampling frame which is not feasible to construct from a big population. (Zikmund, 2010). One critical advantage is that it is free from errors, and it requires exceptionally little knowledge on the subsets. The respondents were people who could understand all that were required, and thus especially minimal explanation was required from the researchers. The questions that were used were applicable to all the businesses that were involved in the research. This is because, in simple random sampling, the subsets selected are picked from the target population. This makes it easy to interpret the data collected. The data collected was easy to analyze, and analyze since the respondents had almost the same answers to the research questions. The method was also suitable because the research was not gathering technical information that required experts. It was economical to explain the questions to the respondents, since it did target a large number of people. (Creswell, 2009). On the contrary, it has a lot of errors due to the randomness of selection that can give samples that do not reflect the characteristics of the actual population. For example, a simple random sampling of 20 businesses will averagely produce 10 businesses that got assistance from venture capital and 10 that did not, but the actual trial will over present or under present one of the category. The result of the research was incredibly consistent with the expectation of the researcher. There was no immense variation between the actual and the expected. This implies that simple random was a superior method for this research. Simple random sampling is tedious and exceptionally cumbersome when done from a large population. There was a lot of movement from one enterprise to the other to look for the respondents. Some of the respondents were not available at the time o f conducting the interview, and so the researcher had to go to another time. There were especially many entrepreneurs to be interviewed, and this method was so effective since it saved time. This was so imperative since it will not be feasible to interview all the businesspersons. It also complicated if the research questions are exceedingly many. The questionnaire had many questions, and this method only allowed the target group to answer the questions. The

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard Movie Review

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard - Movie Review Example The death of the two minor characters is very tragic and depicted in a manner similar to the death of a major character in any play. The deaths are given some importance even though they are not very meaningful, every man is mortal and will at one time die (Stoppard 110).the play is also full of humor and the use of suspense which brings about the need for the people wanting to watch more of the play. For the play to be produced, it will seek funding from various places like the corporate support. Private institutions and business help in the funding through the PBS general fund though the funds are very limited and cannot sustain the whole production. In addition, the production of the play funded by the program also funds television based programs and those projects that have goals and objectives that are well established. The other source of funding is the national endowment for arts, which promotes art in various countries. In addition to that, the national media engagement centre can also help with the funding of the production of the play. Many I TVS today really come in to fund the production of programs that will promote the economy of the country and bring on TV what people like watching. Centers are ready to promote art in the world, and these centers provide the funds for the production of their work, and discover talent and promote it fully by funding it. The public broadcasting corporation also funds projects, which entertain, and are media related. They funds play knowing that they will also benefit in return. The grant makers in film and electronic media also assist artists by funding the production of their work. The stakeholders in the company look at the project and if it qualifies, they can fund the production. Another source for the funding is national endowment for humanities, which help many artists by funding and promoting their work. When approached, they do not take much time in supporting the production if the work is appealing to

Intergovernmental Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Intergovernmental Management - Research Paper Example Collaboration is a deliberative process, which involves the participation and debating of issues by everyone, including the public, who have a stake in the outcomes too. However, collaboration needs consensus to be reached between the stakeholders and the public. Networks are also vital in collaborations. Reaching a consensus is easy, but translating the consensus into results is the hard part. The networks are responsible for guiding and supporting implementation, as well as supporting the management responses. Margerum integrates the seven Cs into the collaboration process. First communication, which is sharing of information, is essential. This could be one-way or two-way. However, a two-way communication is most appropriate for collaboration, as it is more interactive. Consultation between government or non-governmental organizations and the people offers a significant exchange of information and gives an opportunity for feedback from the public. In addition, conflict resolution in collaboration begins with communication, which must be effective. Conflict resolution may be formal or informal. Consensus building involves stages that lead to a mutual agreement between the involved parties. Cooperation makes the parties work independently toward one goal. Finally, coordination makes the parties work collectively toward one common goal (Margerum, 2011). On the other hand, Norris-Tirrell and Clay in their collaboration model, define collaboration as a way of addressing problems affecting the public through the sharing of information and knowledge among different parties to result in positive change. Before getting into collaboration, it is important for the parties to be prepared to work outside the boundaries of their organizations or departments. In addition, Norris-Tirrell and Clay present collaboration as a continuum and argue that collaboration

Why the Legal Drinking Age Shouldnt be lowered Essay Example for Free

Why the Legal Drinking Age Shouldnt be lowered Essay In the United States, the legal drinking age for all fifty states and the District of Columbia is twenty-one. The drinking age is twenty-one because the government decided this is when a person becomes legally responsible to handle the repercussions of consuming alcohol. The U. S. has the highest legal drinking age in the world. Only four countries in the world have a legal drinking age over eighteen, making the US an exception rather than the rule. Some people may argue that the government should lower the drinking age since you legally become an adult at age eighteen, but I completely understand this law and am totally for it. Underage drinking has become an epidemic that has spread all over the world, but more so in the United States than any other country. This is disturbing because the brain is not fully developed until a person is around twenty-two years of age. Therefore, it should be harder for minors to obtain alcohol, and the legal drinking age should not be lowered. What is alcohol, and where did it come from? Alcohol is a natural substance formed by the reaction of fermenting sugar with yeast. The production of alcohol started about 10,000 years ago. It all started around the Black and Caspian Seas with wine, and slowly made its way around the surrounding areas. Mesopotamia and Egypt were thriving with wine productions by 3,000 B. C. (Narconon). A thousand years later, a Roman God, Dionysus, started appearing in the literature, and was the god of the grape harvest. Then, about 700 years after that, in addition to wine, India started manufacturing beer. This new production spread rapidly, and the Hebrews adopted the new beverage for many different new medicines. After that, the Jews began to use wine and beer in sacred rituals and ceremonies. Although some cultures accepted alcohol, others rejected it completely. Because these alcoholic beverages were spreading so quickly, they raised curiosity. A medical school in Italy began doing experiments, and finally developed something called distillation- a purer, stronger alcohol (Narconon). From Italy, these new drinks spread to England and Scotland, and eventually found their way over to America. Drunkenness became a huge problem in America, so the government passed the Prohibition Act of 1920. Originally, the eighteenth amendment to the U. S. Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export of all alcoholic beverages. Upon its ratification by the states, Congress voted its approval in 1919. Thus the law was passed, and became known as the National Prohibition Act of 1920 (American Medical Association). The eighteenth amendment was repealed in 1933, which made the Prohibition Act null and unenforceable. After prohibition, most states restricted the minimum legal drinking age to twenty-one. Between 1970 and 1975, twenty-nine states lowered the minimum legal drinking age to eighteen, nineteen, or twenty. These changes were made when other activities, such as voting, were lowered. In between September 1976 and January 1983, the minimum legal drinking age for every state was set at the age of twenty-one. Although this is the law in our country, it is also incredibly easy for minors to obtain alcohol. As always, there are different ways to work around the law. These are issues that must be addressed. Some of these ways include a fake I. D. , a minor giving someone money to go buy it for them, going somewhere that will sell to minors, or even stealing it from their parents liquor cabinet. A fake I. D is fairly cheap and also easy to get if you know the right people. For the most part, if you were a minor trying to get alcohol you could go up to any random person, and eight times out of ten that person would go buy it for you. There are also places minors could go to buy it themselves like little gas stations around the lower socioeconomic societies. The reason that these gas stations will sell to minors is because it increases their sales, and because they will get little penalty for selling to minors. If they do get fined for it, the fine isn’t enough to make them stop. Alcohol generally is not secured in most homes so there is easy access for minors who have no fears about taking it from their parents. There has also been the increasing trend of parents not only providing alcohol, but encouraging its use in the home, under the assumption that minors will do it anyway and it’s better to do so in a supervised, safe environment. Underage drinking is one of the biggest problems that the U. S. faces, and is now considered a public health problem. Young adults have the highest prevalence of alcohol consumption than any other age group (Century Council). They also drink more heavily, experience more negative consequences, and engage in more harmful activities. Drinking at any age can have some of the worst effects on you and the people around you. Many young teens that experiment with alcohol believe there are no consequences to their actions. It is actually quite the opposite. Alcohol is associated with driving under the influence, violence and aggressiveness, sexual activity, smoking, and poor school performance. There are all of these problems, and then some that all started with alcohol. Driving under the influence or a DUI is classified under two categories, and can be given out if the person is under the influence of an intoxicating drink or a combination of an alcoholic beverage and drugs. There are felonies and misdemeanors. The difference between a misdemeanor and a felony is misdemeanor DUI charges means that the charge involved no injury or property damage, and the penalty can be up to 6 months in jail. A felony has injury and/or property damage, and the penalty could be up to three years in a state prison. This number fluctuates depending on the number of misdemeanors or felonies a person has had in the past. These laws are in place to not only protect the youth in America, but to also ensure that other innocent people on the roads do not get hurt. There are plenty of accidents that come from texting and driving already (which is the equivalent to drinking and driving) that to lower the drinking age, I think, would cause more alcohol-induced accidents. Underage drinking already contributes to more than 4,700 automobile wrecks a year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), and studies have shown that every twenty-two minutes someone will die of an alcohol related traffic accident (First Eagle Insurance Services). Although you probably think that it could never happen to you, other studies have shown that everyone has a forty percent chance of being in an accident involving alcohol use at some point in their life (Drug Free World). â€Å"Vehicle crashes remain the leading cause of death for minors age 15-20 years old† (Century Council). Aside from drinking and driving, there is also a two-way association between alcohol consumption and violence or aggressiveness. While individual behavior is shaped in large part by the environment, it is also manipulated by biological factors, and ultimately directed by the brain, but the brain is affected if large amounts of alcohol are consumed. The consumption of alcohol may promote aggressiveness and lead to victimization, which in turn leads to excessive consumption of alcohol. Violence and aggressive behaviors are those that are threatening, hostile, or damaging in a physical or nonphysical way. There have been multiple studies conducted that show there is a link between violent crimes and alcohol consumption. In 2012, the percentages of violent offenders who were drinking at the time of the offense were: â€Å"eighty-six percent of homicide offenders, thirty-seven percent of assault offenders, sixty percent of sexual offenders, up to fifty-seven percent of men, and twenty-seven percent of women involved in marital violence, and thirteen percent of child abusers† (NIAAA). A lot of times alcohol is accompanied by cigarettes, marijuana, or other hardcore drugs. Many researchers hypothesize that the ethanol in alcohol triggers a feeling of pleasure, and those feelings are reinforced when nicotine is added to the mix. Others think that those who abuse one substance will be more inclined to abuse other substances. Nicotine lowers blood alcohol concentration, so therefore a person who is smoking and drinking simultaneously would have to consume more alcohol in order to reach intoxication. Most people react differently to alcohol than others do. A lot of this has to do with the person’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, physical condition (weight, fitness level etc. ), amount of food consumed before drinking, use of drugs/prescription medications, and family history of alcohol problems. Usually when there is a family history of alcohol problems you will often see a history of some other type of disease linked to it. Some of these include: breast cancer, oral cancer, heart disease, strokes, diabetes, and cirrhosis of the liver. Twenty percent of alcohol is absorbed directly through the stomach walls into the bloodstream, and reaches all organs and tissues of the body within moments. The other eighty percent is processed through the gastrointestinal system. It is considered a drug, and is a sedative depressant of the central nervous system (Reeves). Alcohol can damage the dendrites at the end of a nerve cell causing disorder to brain functions. It is also capable of rupturing blood capillaries and veins. Aside from damaging nerves and veins, it can also damage the liver. It stops the liver’s ability to process fats, and can cause disease. The high sugar content in some alcoholic or mixed beverages can lead to hypoglycemia and predispose one to diabetes. Alcohol can also alter sleep patterns, basic motor functions, thoughts, and emotions. The consumption of alcohol on or at an above average rate can lead to alcoholism. Women metabolize alcohol more slowly than men. Because it stays in a womans bloodstream longer, it can cause more cellular damage of the kind that can trigger cancer. Alcohol also influences blood levels of estrogen and other hormones in ways that may make cancer more likely. For example, â€Å"compared to women who dont drink at all, women who have three alcoholic drinks per week have a 15% higher risk of breast cancer. Experts estimate that the risk of breast cancer goes up another 10% for each additional drink women regularly have each day. Girls ages 9-15 who have 3-5 drinks a week have 3 times the risk of developing benign breast lumps†(Breastcancer. org). These benign breast lumps can be a precursor to breast cancer. From this it is easy to see that the younger that someone starts consuming alcohol, the increased risk of cancer and loss of life is more likely. It might be easy to dismiss this issue as one of personal choice or preference. This discounts the social impact of drinking on society. â€Å"Alcohol costs American employers an estimated $134 billion in productivity losses, mostly due to missed work† (Ensuring solutions. org). The impact is not only economical though. Missed work impacts every worker at a job who must work that much harder to accomplish their work tasks. It also can decrease teamwork and morale due to resentment from the missed time at work, therefore decreasing productivity as well. Additionally, alcohol impacts every workers paycheck in other ways. As a rule, workers in America pay taxes on their pay as part of the social contract. These taxes are used for a variety of federal projects, such as ensuring a strong infrastructure, including maintenance of our highway system. â€Å"Alcohol related crashes costs the public $114. 3 billion annually† (MAAD). This is money that could be spent improving our roadways, bridges, and mass transit systems. This would also address shortfalls in other areas of the government budget, such as possibly addressing the furlough of air traffic controllers due to the current sequester. Not only is alcohol affecting society in terms of road safety, it is impacting air safety too. These quotes and statistics are not specifically for underage drinkers but as a sampling of society as a whole we can see that if adults are unable to drink heavily and prolonged without negative effects the same should be true of minors who have not yet developed full brain capacity and critical thinking skills. It is not just physical and social effects that are felt by people who overuse or abuse alcohol. â€Å"Among high school students, those who use alcohol are five times more likely to drop out than those who dont use alcohol. Alcohol is implicated in more than 40 percent of all college academic problems and in 28 percent of all college dropouts† (Alcoholcostcalculator. org). This has a ripple effect. High school and college dropouts on average earn less than those with secondary and post secondary degrees. This not only impacts the immediate quality of life it has long term effects reaching into retirement. Social Security is based on lifetime earned income. With the reduced earning potential of not having a diploma or degree underage drinkers set themselves up for living on a fixed income once they become old or infirm. This is not the only economic impact. A quick look at Rehabilitation Centers shows price ranges from $2,000-$30,000 for a 28 day stay. This does not include continuing aftercare. There are also legal fees for DUIs or Public Intoxication citations, plus bar tabs prior to the cessation of drinking. â€Å"Out of every $100 American consumers spend, about $1 goes to alcohol† (Vo). The average household income is around $50,000 per year, meaning that on average $500 a year is spent on alcohol, for an approximate lifetime average of $35,000. â€Å"In 2007 the death toll from teen drunk driving accidents was 1,393† (Drug Free World). The economic impact of funeral expenses, which on average total around $6,000, is nothing in terms of emotional cost. Many parents who lose a child end up divorcing, tearing apart families in the process. This may also lead to alcohol or other drug abuse in the parents or siblings, resulting in further economic, social, and societal impacts. It’s a vicious cycle and one that could be avoided by continuing to keep the drinking age at the current level. There are numerous warning signs that a minor may have an issue with underage drinking and it is important for those involved in the minor’s life to recognize these to curb an issue before it begins. These include physical, emotional, family, school, and social problems. Parents, teachers, and friends should look for physical signs such as fatigue, red and glazed eyes, or a lasting cough. Emotional indicators include personality changes, sudden mood changes, irritability, irresponsible behavior, low self esteem, poor judgment, and depression. The minor may start more arguments, break more rules and withdraw from their family. There will be a decreased interest in school, drop in grades, increased absences, truancy, and a rise in discipline issues. The minor may show a big social change, with new friends, a change in style of dress, and possible problems with the law. This list is not exhaustive, but from the examples given it shows that underage drinkers have a wealth of issues that will affect them negatively for quite some time. With all of this in mind, I do not feel that lowering the legal drinking age would be in our county’s best interest. The government has these laws in place to keep our country and the people in it safe, and if these laws were to change it would send our country into a downward spiral. I feel that the rates of alcohol induced traffic accidents, rates of violent crimes related to alcohol, rates of certain types of diseases, and much more would upsurge drastically. I also feel that if our government doesn’t address these issues with more force and power, minors will keep doing what they have been doing and nothing will change. Works Cited â€Å"Alcohol Alert. † www. pubs. niaaa. nih. gov/publications/aa38. htm. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). N. d. Web. 25 April 2013. â€Å"Drinking Alcohol. † www. breatscancer. org. 18 January 2013. Web. 4 May 2013. â€Å"Drunk Driving in America. † www. maad. org/media-center. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MAAD). N. d. Web. 25 March 2013. â€Å"Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems. † www. ensuringsolutions. org. N. d. Web. 4 May 2013. â€Å"Minimum Legal Drinking Age. † www. cdc. gov/alcohol/facts-sheets/mlda. htm. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 7 November 2012. Web. 19 March 2013. â€Å"Minimum Legal Drinking Age: Brief History. † www. ama-assn. org. American Medical Association (AMA). N. d. Web. 19 March 2013. Narconon Drug Information Department, ed. â€Å"Alcohol History. † www. narconon.org/drug-information/alcohol-history. Narcanon International. N. d. Web. 25 March 2013. â€Å"Problems at School. † www. alcoholcostcalculator. org. Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems. N. d. Web. 4 May 2013. Reeves, Pat. â€Å"What Alcohol Does to Your Body. † www. foodalive. org/articles/alcohol. htm. Complementary Natural Healthcare Council (CNHC). N. d. Web. 23 March 2013. â€Å"Teenage Drunk Driving. † www. firsteagle. com/tdd. htm. The First Eagle Insurance Services. N. d. Web. 22 April 2013. Vo, L. T. â€Å"What American Spends on Booze. † www. npr. org. National Public Radio. 2013. Web. 4 May 2013.

Theories On Discourse Ideology English Language Essay

Theories On Discourse Ideology English Language Essay INTRODUCTION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Language, that makes us the Crown of Creatures, empowers us with an expressive medium which we exploit to communicate, understand, interpret, negate, acknowledge, appreciate, influence, persuade, dominate, control, etc. Metaphorically speaking, language helps us to caress and comfort our feelings, excite and thrill our spirit, rattle our nerves, kill our desire, and so on.   Language is a variegated phenomenon. It can emotionally move and affect us as powerfully as physical actions. This is the power of language.   1.1   What is Discourse?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The term discourse has been derived from French word  discours  meaning talk. In linguistics, discourse is a sequence of utterances. Grammarians define discourse as large pieces of speech and writing: stretches of language longer than a sentence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Language is used to mean  something and to do  something, and this meaning and doing  is determined by the context of its usage. As discourse is dialogic in nature, the things which make it different from ordinary language use are context, creation, reception and interpretation. It should not be confused with either of the Chomskys or Saussures categories. It is neither  performance or parole  which is concerned with language in its actual utterances, nor  competence or languewhere language is a code system and a system of communicative conventions. Although it contains both the elements, it goes beyond the distinction of  performance or parole  and  competence or langue;  it is the study of language use. If language is speech act and social behavior, discourse is a form of social practice. Foucault defines discourse as ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such knowledges and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and producing meaning. They constitute the nature of the body, unconscious and conscious mind and emotional life of the subjects they seek to govern. (Weedon, 1987) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a form of power that circulates in the social field and can attach to strategies of domination as well as those of resistance. (Diamond Quinby, 1988)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In other words, discourse is a string of utterances concerned with the production of meaning. Discourse is a socially organized way of speaking. According to Foucault, discourse constructs the topic. It governs what can and cannot be said about the topic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Apart from governing the topic, it is also used to influence people to change ideas into practice (be it personal or others ideas), and to regulate the conduct of others. As discourse is concerned with the production of meaning, the utterances have a relation to common sense assumptions. Cultural hegemony is maintained through common sense assumptions which become universal ideologies through language or in other words discourse. Language exerts hidden power, like a moon on the tides. (Rita Mae Brown,  Starting from Scratch, 1998)   1.2   What is Ideology?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ideologies are those ideas, values, attitudes, and (general or cultural) ways of thinking that shape our belief systems and mind sets about what is /isnt correct, and how it must be. Ideologies, be they religious or political or social, maintain power structures and social hierarchies and remain dominant and prevalent in the society through rhetorical discourse or hidden power in discourse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main purpose of ideology is not only to change the existing structures, but also to maintain already existing set of ideals. Ideas, beliefs, and attitudes which maintain status quo become dominant or prevalent ideologies of the society. These ideologies are so powerful that they ignore and sideline those ideas which are against its very existence through a normative thought process and politics of the language.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ideologies when become shared experiences start making sense. People start making sense of their lives while observing them. In other words, they are no more false beliefs and ideas, rather a true and lived experience. THEORIES ON DISCOURSE IDEOLOGY     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The social theory has contributed in many ways to explore the role of language in exercising, maintaining and changing power. Firstly, the work in the theory of ideology talks about ideology as a mechanism of power without using coercive means and language as a locus of ideology which is significant in exercising power. Secondly, Michel Foucaults work ascribes central role to discourse in the development of power structures of forms. Thirdly, Jurgen Habermas theory of communicative action which challenges Marxist focus on economics or alienated labor- is considered as the sole determining factor of oppression. He argues that key to liberation is rather to be found in language and communication between people. 2.1   Marx and Ideology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Karl Max, a social thinker of 19th  century, talked of ideology in terms of an instrument of social production. He gave economic base and superstructure model of society, where base denotes the relation of production and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology. Base shapes the superstructure of any society, while the superstructure maintains and legitimates the base.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Marx, bourgeoisie create and reinforce particular ways of thinking, in other words, particular ideology which in turn reinforce the structure of the society, thus maintaining status quo and existing hierarchies of status and power.   Fig. 1: Marxs Base Superstructure Model of Society   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Karl Marx, social ideologies not only cause  status quo or hegemony  in the society, but also a conditioning where false consciousness created by the ruling class is justified. This conditioning makes us think that the way our society operates is for the best, and lower class justifies its own lower position in society.      Michel Foucault in The Order of Discourse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In The Order of Discourse,  Foucault argues that the discourse is controlled by certain functions, actions and rules. In particular, certain topics are prohibited and who speaks is limited. Reason is valued and madness is ignored. It is also controlled by what we choose to comment on and by the will to truth. [T]he highest truth no longer resided in what discourse was or did, but in what is said: a day came when truth was displaced by from the ritualized, efficacious, and just act of enunciation, towards the utterance itself, its meaning, its form, its object, its relation to its reference. (1462)   In every society, the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its chance events, to evade its ponderous, formidable materiality (p.210).     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Foucault also talks about procedures of exclusion and procedures of inclusion. He states that prohibition of including or discussing certain topics very soon reveal [discourses] link with desire and with power (p.211).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At another place he says that discourse is not simply that which translates struggles or systems of domination, but is the thing for which and by which there is struggle; discourse is the power which is to be seized (p.211).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Weedons (1987) in interpretation of Foucault is: A dynamic of control between discourses and the subjects, constituted by discourses, who are their agents. Power is exercised within discourses in the ways in which they constitute and govern individual subjects.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Foucaults focus is upon questions of how some discourses have shaped and created meaning systems that have gained the status and currency of truth, and dominate how we define and organize both ourselves and our social world, whilst other alternative discourses are marginalised and subjugated, yet potentially offer sites where hegemonic practices can be contested, challenged and resisted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Foucault developed the concept of the discursive field as part of his attempt to understand the relationship between language, social institutions, subjectivity and power. Discursive fields, such as the law or the family, contain a number of competing and contradictory discourses with varying degrees of power to give meaning to and organize social institutions and processes. They also offer a range of modes of subjectivity (Weedon, 1987). It follows then that, if relations of power are dispersed and fragmented throughout the social field, so must resistance to power be (Diamond Quinby, 1988).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Foucault argues though, in  The Order of Discourse, that the will to truth is the major system of exclusion that forges discourse and which tends to exert a sort of pressure and something like a power of constraint on other discourses, and goes on further to ask the question what is at stake in the will to truth, in the will to utter this true discourse, if not desire and power? (1970, cited in Shapiro 1984, p. 113-4).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thus, there are both discourses that constrain the production of knowledge, dissent and difference and some that enable new knowledges and difference(s). The questions that arise within this framework, are to do with how some discourses maintain their authority, how some voices get heard whilst others are silenced, who benefits and how that is, questions addressing issues of power/ empowerment/ disempowerment.  Ã‚   2.3   Louis Althussers view of Ideology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Louis Althusser builds on the work of Jacques Lacan to understand the way ideology functions in society. He thus moves away from the earlier Marxist understanding of ideology. In the earlier model, ideology was believed to create what was termed false consciousness, a false understanding of the way the world functioned (for example, the suppression of the fact that the products we purchase on the open market are, in fact, the result of the exploitation of laborers). Althusser revised Marxs view of ideology, which he described as: thought as an imaginary construction whose status is exactly like the theoretical status of the dream among writers before Freud.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He saw human individuals being constituted as  subjects  through  ideology. Consciousness and agency are experienced, but are the products of ideology speaking through the subject. Above all, ideology is an imaginary construction that represents the real world. However, it is so real to us that we never question it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Althusser posits a series of hypotheses that he explores to clarify his understanding of ideology:   Ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence (Lenin  109).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The traditional way of thinking of ideology led Marxists to show how ideologies are false by pointing to the real world hidden by ideology (for example, the real economic base for ideology). According to Althusser, by contrast, ideology does not reflect the real world but represents the imaginary  relationship of individuals to the real world; the thing ideology (mis)represents is itself already at one remove from the real. In this, Althusser follows the Lacanian understanding of the  imaginary order, which is itself at one step removed from the Lacanian  Real. In other words, we are always within ideology because of our reliance on language to establish our reality; different ideologies are but different representations of our social and  imaginary  reality not a representation of the  Real  itself.  Ã‚   Ideology has a material existence (Lenin  112).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Althusser contends that ideology has a material existence because an ideology always exists in an apparatus, and its practice, or practices (Lenin  112). Ideology always manifests itself through actions, which are inserted into practices (Lenin  114), for example, rituals, conventional behavior, and so on. It is our performance of our relation to others and to social institutions that continually instantiates us as subjects.  Judith Butlers understanding of performativity  could be said to be strongly influenced by this way of thinking about ideology.  Ã‚   all ideology hails or interpellates concrete individuals as concrete subjects (Lenin  115).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Althusser, the main purpose of ideology is in constituting concrete individuals as subjects (Lenin  116). So pervasive is ideology in its constitution of subjects that it forms our very reality and thus appears to us as true or obvious. Althusser gives the example of the hello on a street: the rituals of ideological recognition [] guarantee for us that we are indeed concrete, individual, distinguishable and (naturally) irreplaceable subjects (Lenin  117). Through interpellation, individuals are turned into subjects (which are always ideological).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Althussers example is the hail from a police officer: Hey, you there!' (Lenin  118): Assuming that the theoretical scene I have imagined takes place in the street, the hailed individual will turn round. By this mere one-hundred-and-eighty-degree physical conversion, he becomes a  subject (Lenin  118). The very fact that we do not recognize this interaction as ideological speaks to the power of ideology: what thus seems to take place outside ideology (to be precise, in the street), in reality takes place in ideology [.] That is why those who are in ideology believe themselves by definition outside ideology: one of the effects of ideology is the practical  denegation  of the ideological character of ideology by ideology: ideology never says, I am ideological. (Lenin  118) individuals are always-already subjects (Lenin  119).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although he presents his example of interpellation in a temporal form (I am interpellated and thus I become a subject, I enter ideology), Althusser makes it clear that the becoming-subject happens even before we are born. This proposition might seem paradoxical (Lenin  119), Althusser admits; nevertheless, That an individual is always-already a subject, even before he is born, is [] the plain reality, accessible to everyone and not a paradox at all (Lenin  119). Even before the child is born, it is certain in advance that it will bear its Fathers Name, and will therefore have an identity and be irreplaceable. Before its birth, the child is therefore always-already a subject, appointed as a subject in and by the specific familial ideological configuration in which it is expected once it has been conceived (Lenin119). Althusser thus once again invokes Lacans ideas, in this case Lacans understanding of the Name-of-the-Father.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most subjects accept their ideological self-constitution as reality or nature and thus rarely run afoul of the repressive State apparatus, which is designed to punish anyone who rejects the dominant ideology.  Hegemony  is thus reliant less on such repressive State apparatuses as the police than it is on those Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) by which ideology is inculcated in all subjects. (See the next module for an explanation of ISAs.) As Althusser puts it, the individual  is interpellated as a (free) subject in order that he shall submit freely to the commandments of the Subject, i.e. in order that he shall (freely) accept his subjection, i.e. in order that he shall make the gestures and actions of his subjection all by himself' (Lenin  123). Louis Althussers ISA   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Althusser proposed a materialistic conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are true. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told (but is suggested).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. What is ultimately important for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the minds of human individuals, but rather the material institutions, rituals and discourses that produce these beliefs.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Althusser identified the  Ideological State Apparatus  (ISA) as the method by which organizations propagate ideology primarily. Violence or threat of violence is secondary.   ISAs for Althusser were religious, educational, family, cultural institutions. This is in contrast to the  Repressive State Apparatus  (RSA), by which compliance can be forced and includes the army, police, government, prisons. Force or threat of force is primary, while ideology is secondary. For example, arrest imprisonment, corporal punishment, etc.   2.4   Discourse as Social Practice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social relations of power and domination are sustained through ideology. To Fairclough, ideologies construct realities which give meaning to discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Hence the discursive practices, loaded with ideologies not only produce, but also reproduce or transform social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief.  Ã‚   2.4.1   Fairclough and Ideology:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are two ways of exercising power: through coercion and through consent. According to Fairclough, Ideology is the key mechanism of rule by consent, and discourse is a favored vehicle of ideology. It functions to establish, sustain or change domination or power relations in the society. For Fairclough, ideologies are constructions of reality which are built into various dimensions of the forms and meanings of discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Through being ideologically invested, discourse is a mode of producing, reproducing or transforming social identities, social relations, and systems of knowledge and belief.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fairclough (1992) makes three claims about ideology, based in part on the French Marxist philosopher, Althusser: Ideology has a material basis in the social practices of institutions. As a form of social practice, discourse practices are material forms of ideology. Ideology interpellates subjects. It works by constituting people as subjects within the framework of ideology. Patriarchal ideology interpellates individuals as more powerful men or less powerful women. Racist ideology interpellates groups as ourselves and the Other (see Hall 1997 The Spectacle of the Other). Ideology operates through powerful ideological state apparatuses. Althusser contrasts what he terms the repressive agencies of the police, the military, prisons and the courts, with the ideological state apparatuses of the mass media, education and popular culture. In Faircloughs theory, all of these give rise to institutional and societal orders of discourse (the societal order of discourse is a condensation of the institutional orders of discourse). 2.4.2   Fairclough and Discourse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discourse involves two kinds of social conditions:  social conditions of production and social conditions of interpretation.  These social conditions are naturalized through the ideological functioning of the practices of dominant class. Fairclough describes underlying conventions of discourse which in fact determines discourse in terms of what Foucault refers to as orders of discourse. To Fairclough, these orders of discourse embody particular ideologies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fairclough refers to the three dimensions of discourse. They are discursive practice (discourse practice), social practice (socio-cultural practice), and text. Social practice  includes discourse which not only reflects reality, but also effect social structures which play active role in social change. Different subject positions determine different discoursal rights and obligations of individuals. Discourse practice  refers to the production and reception of messages. Participants indulged in discourse construct their social identities and relations by knowing how to act in certain situations. For this participants draw on what Fairclough refers to as members resources (MR). This include internalized knowledge of social structure and social practices; knowledge about production and interpretation of discourse types; and detailed knowledge of particular linguistics and textual structuring devices. Text  is the record of a communicative event. It can be written, spoken or visual. While analyzing text in terms of ideologies embedded in it, two things are very important: firstly, representation of ideological facts and beliefs and construction of participant identities (writer and reader), and secondly, textual function which frames the message. 3.How Ideologies are Embedded in Language     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Language produces, maintains and changes social relations of power. It also contributes to the domination of some people by others. Power is exercised through language in conversations and other forms of text or talk. When people interact linguistically, the conventional talk embodies common sense assumptions where power structures are treated as legitimized. According to Fairclough, these assumptions are ideologies which are closely linked to power and language. Power relations determine the conventional ideological assumptions, which in turn legitimize existing social relations and unequal power. Language, a social behavior, relies on common sense assumptions. The exercise of power in modern society is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through the ideological working of the language. (Fairclough, 1989) Further he says, Ideology is the prime means of manufacturing consent.   3.1   Memory Resources   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ideological assumptions are mere common sense  assumptions, and contribute to sustain existing power relations. To Fairclough, these common sense assumptions are memory resources (MR). when sender encodes a message, the receiver not only decodes it, but also interpret it by comparing and contrasting features of utterances with representations stored in long term memory. Fairclough refers to these prototypes as member resources: grammatical forms, structures, shapes of words, sequence of events, systems of meaning, sounds, etc. Interaction between interpreted utterance and MR results in comprehension. According to Fairclough, understanding how language, power, and ideology are interrelated requires attention to the processes of production and comprehension because MR/ representations/ prototypes are socially determined and ideologically shaped. They are so automatic, natural, legitimate and common sense assumptions that they remain in disguise. The sociologist Harold Garfinkel, describes the familiar common sense world of everyday life as a world which is built entirely upon assumptions and expectations which control both the action of members of society and their interpretation of the action of others. Such assumptions and expectations are implicit, back grounded, taken for granted, not things that people are consciously aware of and rarely explicit. Effectiveness of ideology depends to a considerable degree on it being merged with this common sense background to discourse and other forms of social action.   3.2   Language Ideologies in Text   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Language ideologies are not just ways of explaining language and language use for economic reasons, but are the language ideas of the dominant groups in society. They may equally be inter-changed with discourses about language. Ideologies are not untrue indeed, like stereotypes, there may be a degree of truth in them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ideology is to study its effects on discourse forms and meanings and how discursive structures may in turn contribute to the formation and transformation of ideologies. However, ideologies are also at play when language users engage in the ongoing construction of context as subjective, as well as group sensitive, interpretations of social situations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While talking about ideologies embedded in text, we can say that this genre of discourse is a level of language use which is super-ordinate to sentences and texts. Text is not something having a beginning and an end. It involves exchange of meanings. Text are created by speakers and writers who share societys beliefs concerning what is right and what is wrong or about the way things should be for the best in society. When they want to maintain their belief systems or ideologies, they take the help of language. These ideologies remain implicit in the text as they seem natural or common sense. The ideologically loaded language of the text grants it the ideological power. Such langue has judgmental value and meaning as well. Many ideologically loaded words have their judgemental value because their meaning is rational. They exist as binary pairs: master/mistress, housewife/working mother, middle class/working class, freedom fighter/terrorist, hero/coward, etc. So me linguists maintain that all language all meaning is an ideological construct.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Following are few texts which are all related to social problems for one and social beliefs for the other. In other words, they contain social ideologies which are neutralized in the society.   CONCLUSION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Long-range social changes are driven by changes in ideology. But at a local level, change in actual discourse practices can be cumulative in effect. Both discourse and ideology are based on the relationship between power and knowledge. We tend to think of knowledge as empowering ourselves (Sarup, 1993).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Besides this, knowledge is the ability to exercise power over others. So, power is both positive (productive in creating identities), and negative (destroy identities). In productive power, one is not reduced to one dimension as in ideologies and power is not held by one person or group for good. Rather, it exists as a circuit, something which is exercised by everyone in different situations. As where there is power there is always resistance, power can be challenged.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We might not say certain things in certain situations, but by breaking the rules, we can re-define the limits of discourse. Hence, redefining the limits of discourse is something  productive about power.